The Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptors (FGFR) are receptor tyrosine kinases that bind to fibroblast growth factor (FGF) ligands. There are four FGFR proteins (FGFR1-4) that are capable of binding ligands and are involved in the regulation of many physiological processes including tissue development, angiogenesis, wound healing, and metabolic regulation. Upon ligand binding, the receptors undergo dimerization and phosphorylation leading to stimulation of the protein kinase activity and recruitment of many intracellular docking proteins. These interactions facilitate the activation of an array of intracellular signaling pathways including Ras-MAPK, AKT-PI3K, and phospholipase C that are important for cellular growth, proliferation and survival (Reviewed in Eswarakumar et al. Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews, 2005).
Aberrant activation of this pathway either through overexpression of FGF ligands or FGFR or activating mutations in the FGFRs can lead to tumor development, progression, and resistance to conventional cancer therapies. In human cancer, genetic alterations including gene amplification, chromosomal translocations and somatic mutations that lead to ligand-independent receptor activation have been described. Large scale DNA sequencing of thousands of tumor samples has revealed that components of the FGFR pathway are among the most frequently mutated in human cancer. Many of these activating mutations are identical to germline mutations that lead to skeletal dysplasia syndromes. Mechanisms that lead to aberrant ligand-dependent signaling in human disease include overexpression of FGFs and changes in FGFR splicing that lead to receptors with more promiscuous ligand binding abilities (Reviewed in Knights and Cook Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 2010; Turner and Grose, Nature Reviews Cancer, 2010). Therefore, development of inhibitors targeting FGFR may be useful in the clinical treatment of diseases that have elevated FGF or FGFR activity.
The cancer types in which FGF/FGFRs are implicated include, but are not limited to: carcinomas (e.g., bladder, breast, cervical, colorectal, endometrial, gastric, head and neck, kidney, liver, lung, ovarian, prostate); hematopoietic malignancies (e.g., multiple myeloma, chronic lymphocytic lymphoma, adult T cell leukemia, acute myelogenous leukemia, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, myeloproliferative neoplasms, and Waldenstrom's Macroglubulinemia); and other neoplasms (e.g., glioblastoma, melanoma, and rhabdosarcoma). In addition to a role in oncogenic neoplasms, FGFR activation has also been implicated in skeletal and chondrocyte disorders including, but not limited to, achrondroplasia and craniosynostosis syndromes.
The FGFR4-FGF19 signaling axis, specifically, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a number of cancers including hepatocellular carcinoma (Heinzle et al., Cur. Pharm. Des. 2014, 20:2881). Ectopic expression of FGF19 in transgenic mice was shown to lead to tumor formation in the liver and a neutralizing antibody to FGF19 was found to inhibit tumor growth in mice. In addition, overexpression of FGFR4 has been observed in a multiple tumor types including hepatocellular carcinoma, colorectal, breast, pancreatic, prostate, lung, and thyroid cancers. Furthermore, activating mutations in FGFR4 have been reported in rhabdomyosarcoma (Taylor et al. JCI 2009,119:3395). Targeting FGFR4 with selective small molecule inhibitors may therefore prove beneficial in the treatment of certain cancers.
There is a continuing need for the development of new drugs for the treatment of cancer and other diseases, and the FGFR4 inhibitors described herein help address this need.